13.4 Core Theoretical Frameworks
A. Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)
Linguistic relativity, often linked to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (though not originally framed as such by Sapir or Whorf), suggests that an individual's native language influences their thought processes and perceptions.
The theory has two main forms:
- Strong form (linguistic determinism): Language dictates thought and worldview. This has little support and is largely rejected by linguists.
- Weak form: Language significantly influences cognition. This form has gained renewed credibility, particularly since the 1980s, with empirical research supporting how language can shape cognitive distinctions like color perception.
Historically, research explored linguistic relativity in areas like color, space, time, and motion, with emotion as an emerging interest. Popular claims, often exaggerated (e.g., "Inuit words for snow"), have faced scrutiny. Recent studies, such as Keith Chen's work linking grammatical future tense to risk aversion, have been critiqued by linguists for strong Whorfian interpretations.
B. Language Ideologies
In linguistic anthropology, language ideologies are frameworks that help people interpret the relationship between linguistic patterns and social categories. They evaluate socially perceivable behavior, especially concerning power, authority, and difference, by connecting specific language uses with social positions.
Language ideologies are deeply tied to societal power structures. They can reinforce social hierarchies, linking certain languages or dialects to prestige while marginalizing others. Language can be a tool for social control and exclusion, but also for resistance and empowerment.
Studying language ideologies involves examining language use and histories in "real space and time" using empirical data, often through ethnographic research and discourse analysis. Researchers focus on the behaviors, activities, and social relations of language users, noting that what is unsaid can also reveal ideological work. Language ideologies profoundly influence linguistic practices, attitudes towards different languages/dialects, and identity construction. Insights from this field inform language education, revitalization, and intercultural communication strategies.
A significant principle is that language ideologies are not just explicit opinions but deeply embedded, often unconscious frameworks that permeate all linguistic interactions. They operate at a "prereflective" and "behavioral" level, meaning they function beneath conscious thought and action. This implies all language use is inherently ideological, constantly shaping perceptions of power, authority, and difference, even when speakers are unaware. This makes their study crucial for understanding subtle mechanisms of social stratification and inequality.
C. Ethnography of Communication (EOC)
The Ethnography of Communication (EOC), formerly "ethnography of speaking," is a discourse analysis method examining communication within a culture's social and cultural practices and beliefs. It uniquely considers both the communicative form (including, but not limited to, spoken language) and its function within a given culture. Its aims include identifying important communication acts and codes for different groups, understanding meanings of communication events, and investigating how group members learn these codes.
Dell Hymes proposed EOC to analyze language use patterns in speech communities, supporting his concept of "communicative competence" as a response to Chomsky's linguistic competence/performance distinction. Hymes later expanded the definition to include non-vocal and non-verbal communication.
A key EOC component is Hymes's SPEAKING model, a mnemonic framework for analyzing any speech event:
- S - Setting and Scene: Physical and psychological environments.
- P - Participants: Individuals involved and their roles.
- E - Ends: Purpose and intended outcome.
- A - Act Sequence: Specific speech acts and their order.
- K - Key: Tone or manner of delivery.
- I - Instrumentalities: Communication channel/medium and language/variety used.
- N - Norms of Interaction: Implicit/explicit rules governing speech acts.
- G - Genres: Type of speech event and conventional forms drawn upon.
EOC studies interactions within "speech communities"—groups with shared norms and expectations regarding language use and cultural/social interactions. "Communicative competence" refers to the ability to effectively communicate and interpret messages within a cultural context, involving both linguistic elements and social norms. EOC is a branch of sociolinguistics, examining language use as a social practice in different cultural contexts.