SEMANTICS: A Critical Introduction

1. Defining Semantics

Semantics is the systematic study of meaning in language. However, "meaning" itself is a complex and contested concept. Different theories attempt to define it, but each has limitations.

1.1 Theories of Meaning

(a) Meaning as Connotation (Associative Meaning)

• Definition: The subjective, culturally dependent associations evoked by a word.

• Example: Winter may evoke snow, cold, holidays for some, but rain, humidity for others (e.g., in tropical climates).

• Critique: Connotations vary widely across speakers, making this an unreliable basis for a universal theory of meaning.

(b) Meaning as Denotation (Referential Meaning)

• Definition: The actual entity or object in the world that a word refers to.

• Works well for: Proper nouns (London, Mount Everest) and concrete nouns (table, dog).

• Fails for:

  • Abstract concepts (love, democracy)

  • Verbs (think, imagine)

  • Non-referential words (if, the)

• Critique: Not all linguistic meaning is referential.

(c) Meaning as Extension + Intension

• Extension: The set of all possible referents of a word (e.g., dog refers to all actual dogs).

• Intension: The conceptual content or mental representation associated with a word (e.g., dog = "domestic canine, four-legged, barks").

• Advantage: Combines real-world reference with cognitive representation.

• Example: Unicorn has no extension (no real unicorns) but has intension (mythical horse-like creature with a horn).