9.5 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS AND THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO SEMANTICS
1. Origins of Semantics: Bréal and the Science of Meaning
1.1 Michel Bréal’s Pioneering Work
Terminology: The term semantics (French sémantique) was coined by Michel Bréal in 1883, derived from Greek sēmantikos ("significant").
Key Publications:
Essai de sémantique (1897), translated as Semantics: Studies in the Science of Meaning (1900).
Core Contributions:
Rejected etymological fallacy (the idea that a word’s "true meaning" lies in its origin).
Argued meaning is shaped by speaker intent and contextual use, not static definitions.
Semantic change is driven by communicative needs (e.g., "awful" shifting from "awe-inspiring" to "terrible").
1.2 Bréal’s Theoretical Legacy
Influence of Whitney:
William Dwight Whitney (1867) asserted language is a social institution, not a natural law.
Bréal adopted this view, framing semantics as the study of how thought is encoded in signs.
Key Quote:
"The hearer goes straight to the thought behind a word" (Bréal 1900: 107).
2. Varieties of Semantic Study Across Disciplines
Semantics is studied differently depending on the field’s focus:
| Discipline | Focus | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Linguistics | How meaning is structured in language (words → discourse). | Analyzing polysemy in "bank". |
| Philosophy of Language | Abstract theories of reference, truth, and meaning. | Frege’s Sense vs. Reference. |
| Mathematical Logic | Formal models of meaning (e.g., predicate logic). | Truth-conditional semantics. |
| Computer Science | Machine-readable meaning (e.g., NLP, knowledge graphs). | WordNet, semantic search algorithms. |
| Psychology | Cognitive processes behind meaning construction. | Prototype theory (Rosch 1975). |
3. Core Aspects of Meaning
3.1 Extensional vs. Intensional Meaning
| Aspect | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Extensional | The actual referent(s) of a term. | "The President of the U.S." (2024: Joe Biden). |
| Intensional | The conceptual criteria for reference. | "The President" = "elected head of state." |
Key Debate:
Frege’s Puzzle: Why "Morning Star = Evening Star" (same extension) is informative, as their senses (intensions) differ.
3.2 Compositionality vs. Holism
Compositional Theories:
Meaning builds from parts (e.g., "blackbird" = black + bird).
Dominates formal semantics (e.g., Montague Grammar).
Holistic Theories:
Meanings are interdependent (e.g., "kill" implies "cause to die").
Associated with cognitive linguistics.
4. Semantic Relations and Categorization
4.1 Traditional Lexical Relations
| Relation | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Synonymy | Near-identical meanings. | Happy ≈ joyful. |
| Antonymy | Opposites (gradable/non-gradable). | Hot vs. cold (gradable). |
| Hyponymy | Hierarchical (specific → general). | Rose is a hyponym of flower. |
| Meronymy | Part-whole relationships. | Wheel is a meronym of car. |
| Metonymy | Contiguity-based substitution. | "The White House announced..." |
4.2 Prototype Theory (Rosch & Lakoff)
Key Idea: Categories are graded (not rigid) and based on typical examples.
"Robin" is a prototypical bird; "penguin" is peripheral.
Implications:
Challenges classical necessary-and-sufficient-conditions models.
Explains fuzzy boundaries (e.g., "Is a tomato a fruit?").
Cultural Variation:
Categories reflect embodied experience (Lakoff 1987).
E.g., color terms vary across languages (Berlin & Kay 1969).
5. Debates and Extensions
5.1 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Strong View: Language determines thought (linguistic relativity).
Weak View: Language influences cognition (e.g., time metaphors in Mandarin vs. English).
5.2 Modern Applications
Digital Semantics:
Emojis as semantic units (e.g., ❤️ = love, support, or like).
Neurosemantics:
fMRI studies show action verbs (e.g., "kick") activate motor cortex.
Conclusion: Semantics as a Dynamic Field
From Bréal’s focus on change and intent to Rosch’s prototypes, semantics bridges:
Structure (linguistics),
Mind (psychology),
Culture (anthropology).
Future Directions:
How does AI (e.g., LLMs) challenge traditional semantic theories?
What can semantic shifts reveal about societal change (e.g., "woke")?